For an age-old problem, I had hoped for greater overall progress and fewer raw human failings. Perhaps this sort of planning aversion can be compared to the individual tendency to avoid contemplating the mortality of ourselves or others. Further research into the details of such attitude and strategy shifts would, I expect, prove interesting. His original motivation was to identify and address issues of efficiency in the industrial workplace by systematically observing work processes in detail The strength behind Taylor's concepts of management are in the ideals of his observations.
Before Taylor, management was not understood, or studied as a scientific endeavor. While the methods of research and investigation have changed dramatically from what Taylor originally pioneered, he was the first to start work in scientific management, laying the path for new methods and research to come.
Taylor was the first man in recorded history who deemed work deserving of systematic observation and study. On Taylor's 'scientific management' rests, above all, the tremendous surge of affluence in the last seventy-five years which has lifted the working masses in the developed countries well above any level recorded before, even for the well-to-do.
Taylor, though the Isaac Newton or perhaps the Archimedes of the science of work, laid only first foundations, however. Provide detailed instructions and supervision for the employee based on the process and task details as created by the first principle. Divide work equally between managers and employees — managers creating the tasks through scientific management and assigning these tasks to the employees. Principles of Scientific Management, Frederick Win. Principles of Scientific Management.
Kurt Lewin - "If you want to truly understand something, try to change it. Most influential of which being his Force field analysis, which provided a framework for analyzing forces driving and restraining in the workplace and in social situations.
These forces either contributing or hindering progress towards a particular goal. The Force field analysis can be used as a tool to assist in decision making and to examine the likelihood of a successful change based on the consideration of driving and opposing forces. Lewin's approach to describing behavior was to observe an individual's situation holistically — understanding the context of the individual, as well as all forces acting upon them.
The Field Theory described by Lewin begins with a situation as a whole — then breaks that situation into component parts, building a model to describe behavior with respect to all of the forces influencing the group or individual in the situation To place the forces that act upon an individual in terms of their own behavior, environment, and all other contributing factors is one of Lewin's great contributions to change management, influencing later research in the field.
For instance, if fear of technology is identified a force opposing the institution, training can be implemented to negate that force. Lewin also introduced the concept if unfreeze-change-refreeze with regards to change in an organization.
This method describes the process of successful change in three stages: 1. Unfreeze — Prepare the organization for change, or identify areas of hurt in the organization where change can begin, and spread from. This stage involves identifying the desire for change, capitalizing upon it and building the momentum necessary to carry through with the next stage. This is where the problem is made clear to the organization. Change — the change is made. This is where the solution is presented that will address the problem that has been outlined in the unfreezing stage.
The problem is addressed and the change is made. Refreeze — Make the change stick. If employees learned new skills, then find methods to get them to use those skills and pass them on. Modify standard operating procedures, process documentations, workplace rules if necessary. In this step it is key to ensure that the initial problem will not come up again.
Theories of personality. New York: Wiley. In the event of a tragic event in a business — whether it is layoffs, redistribution of responsibilities, or re-assignments of roles— this model can assist in understanding the situation.
While it is not always clear how a change in a community or an organization might incite these reactions, the model does provide some insight into how subjects of change may react. Understanding the change and the emotional states of the subjects of that change can assist in facilitating change and ensuring its acceptance and support.
In terms of business or organizational change the model can be perceived as less applicable because of the different context in which it was developed. It can be argued that this model, or any model, needs to be used in a similar context to the one in which it was first identified or developed for maximum effectiveness Morrison, The 20 Kubler-Ross. It relates back to the Lewin model, expressing the context for change as a factor of its environment, providing a simple basis for modeling a change and making a decision based on supporting and limiting factors.
The strength of this model is the simplicity in which it illustrates the conditions for change. It influences an individual to identify the forces acting on the change, as well as to plug a concise vision of what is possible into the equation. As this model focuses primarily on feasibility, it lacks a robust consideration of how to conduct the process of transformation in an organization. Thus, if used, it should be used to support or supplement a more complete model of change.
The model assists in identifying forces opposing change, supporting those needed to participate in the change, and developing a plan to implement and sustain the change after it has been carried out. Often this involves rewarding those who support change, teaching the change to any new hires, implementing the change into existing processes as well as day to day work. The ADKAR model provides a robust model for change management — identifying the major steps for the path to transformation.
It is generalized, and leaves more room for interpretation than some similar models. Kotter is currently a professor at the Harvard business school, and maintains a steady record of publications.
The work Kotter is best known for is his 8 step process for instituting change within an organization, a model that a number of his books describe and support — though often in different ways and from different perspectives.
The strength of the model is that it breaks down the process of change and transformation in a business into the most crucial elements, clarifying the process greatly. The books authored by Kotter act to supplement the 8 step process by explaining the theory behind the process, putting the process in context, and providing examples of the theories in use The Kotter model is still one of the primary foundations for change management theory.
The model is further explained in chapter 3 which focuses on current models of change management. The heart of change: Real-life stories of how people change their organizations. The convergence of said fields of thoughts Each model and field of thought is related in several ways. Most of these methods come from the scientific study of work and management, a practice originally pioneered by Frederick Taylor.
Beyond that, methods introduced by Lewin identify the importance of identifying areas where the need for change is palpable by employees. Parallels between these models and several others in change management and leadership theory are described in a summary of classic theories book by J. While there are clear similarities among a number of the models, each one serves to identify the problems and address the solution in slightly different ways.
For the models where the similarities do not exist procedurally, such as the Kubler-Ross model, it can be shown that these models fit into the change management process differently. The Kubler-Ross model is a framework for understanding the process of a subject accepting change, and is a tool for better understanding, and better planning for certain types of change and how it might be received. The convergence of these models represents the improved understanding of change management.
Beginning with Taylor, who first started scientifically observing management and the metrics of work, to modern models such as Kotter's 8-step process. Through time the models have progressed from broad to more concise, and the convergence of the fields represent the isolation and combination of the key ideas from each model being isolated, studied, expanded upon and focused into new models, approaches and examples.
Table - Pros and cons of the earlier historical models of change management Authors Pros Cons Frederick 1. One of the first formal 1. Taylorism can easily be Winslow Taylor divisions between workers abused to exploit human - and managers. Conflicts with 2. Contribution to efficient labor unions. Not useful to deal with leading to major global groups or teams. Leaves no room for 3. Focus on the individual task individual preferences or and worker level.
Direct reward mechanisms 4. Overemphasis on 25 Ott, J. Classic readings in organizational behavior. No attention pointless end-of-year profit for soft factors. Treating 5. Early proponent people as machines. Separation of planning 6. Suggestion schemes for function and doing. Loss of skill level and rewarded by cash autonomy at worker premiums.
Not very useful in 7. Emphasis on measuring. Pragmatic and useful in an antithesis. Field theory has had a used to examine punctuated change resurgence in complexity theory. It gets an insightful 1. It applies psychology model in environment. It focus on grief, while this is great provides a context for the for doctors and councilors, it is human response to change not helpful in business. It might lead to subjective 3. It gives suggestions to overcome understanding.
Managers might not know how happened in change to use psychology methods management. Formula for 1. The simplicity of this model is a strong The model focuses only on negative change - D x V x point.
It is helpful in identifying what needs David Gleicher to happen in order to get a change process of the ground. The model shows the from organizations. Therefore, it is hard phases that individuals go through in for this model to address business side of any kind of change - personal or change management.
The model is an outstanding framework for business 2. This model slightly oversimplifies the management of large projects, and can change management.
As a manager, you can use this model to identify gaps in your change management process and to provide effective coaching for your employees. Framework of Kotter's model is useful 1. While the model is long on the "what" Leading for orienting action around the change of leading change, it is short on the "how. A second concern lies with the listing of Management tool. Do these stages always need 2.
This model breaks down the process occur in every change effort? Do they of change and transformation in a always need to occur in the same order? The Model is focused on the organizational activities initiated to bring about change.
It sits, so to speak, at the mountain-top, and does not descend into the valleys to describe in a detailed manner the process of helping individuals work through the psychological process of change, moving them from possible resistance through to active commitment. But still each organization type has different purposes, different cultures, and they differ in the situation within which they operate.
To make the change in the public organization like government or military, the one has to go through and solve various problems. Frank Ostroff has identified five principles from the examples of successful transformation of government organizations. We will talk about the five principles with the help of these three organizations. Those three organizations are: i. This example shows how OSHA has successfully changes its mission statement that each employee agrees on and believes in.
Special Operations Forces SOF Principle 1: Improve performance against agency mission Public sector organizations do not run for making money for their shareholders but their goal is to increase public welfare. Their mission is very important for them and should be important for the employees who work in the public organization.
It is really important for any organization that the employees do believe in its mission. But after a while employees and leaders start forgetting about the mission and their goal. Same thing happened with OSHA.
OSHA started measuring success by number of inspections conducted and fines imposed. Transformation efforts started with the mission as a focal point. OSHA started pushing employees to rediscover the underline purpose of the organization and then encouraged innovative thinking about thinking beyond the original purpose.
The fundamental objective of this transformation effort is to improve performance against agency mission. Principle 2: Win Over Stakeholders In general, all the stakeholders fall into two major groups: internal and external.
Internal stakeholders are the employees of an organization. In public sector, employees tend to stay for a longer period of time in a single organization and time span of the leader is much shorter than any of the employees. So employees have experienced the different leaders and their change efforts. A good leader should take advantage of this.
The possible disadvantage of experienced employees is that they may tend to go against the change proposed by new leader. In any case, leader should make sure that all the employees should see the need for change and support the change initiative. When Government Accountability Office GAO went through the transformation, the leader wanted that each employee should get accustomed with the new procedures. The leader of the change initiatives tried to focus on incentives given to the employees.
Previously, in GAO, the pay increment was dependant on the time period for the employment, job classification etc. But this reward system has changed to reward on performance. Employees are rewarded based on their expertise, leadership quality and such performance based measures.
Principle 3: Create a road map It is really important to see a transformation process as a step by step process. This process has three phases-identify performance objectives, set priorities, and roll out the program Identify performance objectives: Every change management effort stats at the top level organizational hierarchy but it needs to expand so that broad cross section of employees can take part in the change process and support.
It is very important to define the mission. One group was a group of managing directors and one was a group of employee representatives. GAO leader discussed with all of them about what needs to be done so that they can give their views and also ask questions.
After this, a team for managing change is built. The team is composed of individuals with the capabilities like- individuals highly respected by others in the agency, individual that strongly supports for the change, each individual should represent the various areas which will get affected by the change. Then the change team can hold workshops to get recommendations for improving performance of the agency.
A facilitator at the workshop first stated the current process to the workshop attendees. At the end of this workshop, there were around ideas on the board. Set priorities: Once all the suggestions are on the table, the next step is to decide which suggestions to incorporate in the action plan and in what sequence. One recommendation given by Frank Ostroff is to construct 2x2 matrix like shown below.
After putting each recommendation in one of these buckets, it is really easy to say that the recommendations that we should consider fall into the bucket of high performance low difficulty. But some times it happens that the initiative has such a big impact so that even though the difficulty level is high, it is recommended that we should consider that suggestion. In the example of OSHA, they used similar metrics to identify which ideas to implement first.
In this exercise, they found that they needed to spend on five weeks worth of training to staff to implement the process redesign. Everybody agreed on the fact that the cost of training is justified as the initiative will have significant impact on the performance.
Roll out the program: It is really important for the agencies to identify the places to start the change program. The staff members of these offices became virtual members of the change team, making sure whether the ideas put through in the workshop were practically possible and well suited in the field.
Training plan was developed. The people from the change team were available to answer any questions, provide guidance, and to note down what worked will and what did not. After success of the pilot phase, the change implementation was extended to incorporate more offices.
Each office going through a change had one observer who was observing the process as it went through the change process. The observer, along with the representative from change team, made sure that the there was no problem implementing the change.
But because this change initiative had already made a huge impact on the employees, OSHA did not change its track as it was happening before change initiative, and were able to succeed achieving the goal of improving performance against its mission.
Principle 4: Take a comprehensive approach To be successful in redesigning the organization, the various factors must be taken in to consideration. Some of those factors include leadership, structure, processes, infrastructure including technology , people, and management.
First is it is in the nature of bureaucrats to respect barriers to change. Good leaders do not always knock down the barriers but they try to find the ways around it. SOF needed a speed boat. But it generally takes 10 to 15 years to actually get the equipment in a traditional way in the military.
SOF used innovative approach. They gave a chance to industry vendors to build three prototypes. Then after very through evaluation, they selected one prototype. This whole process took 37 months as compared to 10 to 15 years by traditional approach. The other problem is that leaders in public sector think that their efforts of improving performance against company mission will be questionable.
In this case, leaders must convince the stakeholders about their sincerity. If the stakeholders, in this case employees, are convinced that the leader is committed to the work, employees are going to listen to the leader. Healthcare Unlike government industry, healthcare is similar to the other private sector organizations when it comes to managing change.
As part of the integration, the emergency services of both hospitals would merge under single leadership. As part of this case study, we will examine the design of proposed future organization. We will also identify and explore the solutions for the potential barriers to this change.
The aim of this law is to downsize the military n the post-cold war era. The one feature of the BRAC is to create 6 medical research centers of excellence which resides in different geographic locations under one roof. These two medical centers are just 16 miles apart from each other. So they have competed with each other for their patients as well as worked together on different programs for a good cause. Previously, these two organizations tried to merge managerial functions under single roof of Joint Military Medical Command.
But they failed in that merger and they went back to military service-specific lines of reporting. For designing the future merger of the two facilities, it is really important to analyze existing hierarchical structure between the two organizations. The important observation from the analysis of these two organizations is that both medical centers have very different leadership, they maintain separate budgets, and sharing only takes place when the overall mission coincides with each other or only if they got orders from the higher authority to do so.
The effect of this difference is apparent when we see he departments of emergency medicine of both organizations. But at WHMC, the situation was variable. The past few leaders have been without any relevant experience to the emergency medicine. Question: Given the background of the two organizations, what do you think are the challenges in merging the two organizations and how will you solve the problem?
Challenges Even though the BRAC law ordered integration of the two facilities, it did not give any additional points about how to go about doing it. Specifically, there should be one organization which will be the lead institution. There is no single chief executive officer CEO identified. As both organization have different line of authority, conflicts will defiantly arise through the integration process.
The integration of two organizations into a single organization means reduced overhead and streamline organizational chart.
So this merger was interpreted by some employees as downsizing and loss of their jobs. It is known that at least few people are going to loose their jobs, especially, the key leaders.
Solution After identifying the challenges, the leaders tried to apply best practices to make the change successful.
There were three major points that were taken into consideration while proposing the design. De Lorenzo, Robert A, Lessons learned This case is still under progress and should me done with the complete merger by The following are the lessons learned from the process till now. It is important to have a clear vision to have a successful transformation or a merger. Change Management: The merger of the two organization having different organizational cultures and separate values is not new to SAMMC.
The large health care managers were attempted to merge the organizations and their lessons learned apply to this merger as well. Greenberg's work on barriers to change provides some useful insight. Four of his five top barriers are apparent in this case: a structural inertia, b group inertia, c Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and d previous failures.
This proposal will make sure that all he medical operations are under single control command. One positive effect of this merger is the increased awareness of the military specific services. Lessons learned from change management implementation The following lessons learned are drawn from the implementation of organizational change in few New Zealand public sector organizations.
Strang, Gleisner, Howlett, Loth, But these are very generic lessons that can be applied to all of the change management projects that are undertaken. Even though the following lessons learned are drawn from public sector change, these also apply to private sector. Analyze the context of change The objectives of the change exercise, expectations of people related to change and the environment in which the change is taking place determine the options for approaching change. Tackle people issues People-related issues during a change process are the most important.
The change leader needs to understand reactions to change and deal with staff concerns directly. Maintain open lines of communication Build staff buy-in and minimize resistance to change by keeping people informed about the change.
Real-life stories can be useful sometime. Recognize cultural issues Understand how cultural issues can interrupt the change process and deal with them, especially in merger situations. Maintain the momentum of change External demands can be useful to reinforce the need for change and create urgency. Once momentum is gained, finding ways to continue to move forward and avoid retreating to past behaviors can be challenging. Chapter Summary This chapter gives information about the history of change management.
To evolve and implement a productive change, all the three aspects should be considered. Otherwise, if one of them is neglected, the whole change process can be jeopardized. The section discusses various issues and problems of managing change of these areas through case studies and offers the guiding principles that are essential for managing respective changes.
These principles and theories are vital for understanding both why and how to use change management with situational awareness and necessary modifications based on the specific change and the particular organization that is being changed. Section C is a summary of the major contributions to the field of change management. When relevant, the strengths and weaknesses of each model are described, as well as their relationship with similar models.
Section D explores the parallels between the models from Section C to better understand the convergence of these various theories of thought. While each model and set of observations regarding change management has differences, many represent a common thread of ideas. The convergence of these fields of thought seems to represent iterative progression towards a common, more generalizable method of modeling change in an organization.
Section E and F talk about the applications of the change management in various organizations. We talked about how the change should be managed in the public sector organizations using few examples in the public sector. We also summarized lessons learned from the implementation of organizational change in the public sector organizations in New Zealand.
These lessons learned are very important to keep in mind while implementing any type of change in the organization. References Ostroff, F. Change Management in Government. Campbell, R. Change Management in Health Care.
The Health Care Manager. Kotter, J. The heart of change: real-life stories of how people change their organizations. Burnes, B. Dessler, G. Haddad, C. Hiatt, J. Lorenzi, N. Ott, J. Leading Change. Our iceberg is melting: Changing and succeeding under any conditions.
New York: St. Martin's Press. Hiatt, Jeffrey Smith, M. Taylor, F. Establishing the Ministry of Social Ceveopment. Military medicine. Executive exit: Multiple perspectives on managing the leadership transition. Retrieved from Blis database. Carey, D. Picking the right insider for CEO succession. Harvard Business Review, 87 1 , Ending the CEO succession crisis.
Harvard Business Review, 83 2 , The last act of a great CEO. Managerial succession and organizational effectiveness. The American Journal of Sociology, 69 1 , Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. Retrieved from WorldCat Shen, W.
Will succession planning increase shareholder wealth? Strategic Management Journal, 24 2 , Picking the right transition strategy. Managing Change in Organizational Development. The current models used in Change Management.
The strengths and weaknesses of the various approaches and when to use them. The ideas behind the concept of Organizational Development 4. How to apply Change Management strategies to specific business situations. Introduction Though a young field, Change Management has a varied landscape of opinions for the best approach on how to maximize chances for success. Now that we know the history of Change Management and some of the basic principles behind it, it is time to learn about the models of Change Management being used today.
Beginning with the work of John Kotter and continuing through the Socio-Technical Systems model, the Iceberg model, and the 7-S model theories of Change Management, this chapter will introduce you to the current models and theories being used in Change Management. While other approaches to Change Management exist, each of the models presented here demonstrates the fundamental principles of how planned change can be executed in real-world organizations. One of the common threads throughout the models is the necessity for understanding the context and environment of the 1: Figure planned changed, Eight Steps especially for Successful the people Large-Scale Changeand culture of the affected organization.
Increase urgency Models of Change Management 2. Build the guiding team Kotter Approach 3. Get the vision right What is it? Communicate for buy-in While the previous approaches established 5. Empower action a solid groundwork of techniques an organization 6.
Create short-term wins 7. According to author John Kotter, the answer may lie in the difficulty of changing the behavior of people in an organization. Kotter originally established his basic tenants of change management in an article published in the Harvard Business Review. He has since fleshed out his theories in subsequent books. In his book Leading Change, Kotter explains the fundamental steps for creating change, and in The Heart of Change, he describes how people can overcome the challenges of each step.
Rather than using charts and graphs to persuade members of an organization that change is needed, Kotter proposes personal reflection for determining change strategy. Only then will an individual be able to adapt his or her behavior to the situation. Kotter, , p. By building a framework for leveraging the skills and ideas of the people in the organization, and generating a feeling of the need for change in every employee, the change process will have the best chance for success.
Once an individual realizes that change needs to take place, the first step is to increase urgency throughout the organization. People must know why the need is important in addition to knowing what the actual need entails. Trusted Reviews is supported by its audience. If you purchase through links on our site, we may earn a commission.
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